Bulgaria - Backgrounds 2

BACKGROUNDS 2 - THE ARTS

Introduction
Classical and Religious Music
Pop, Rock and...Chalga
Literature
Art and Architecture
Folk Music
Art and Craft - Textiles
Art and Craft - Wood carving
The Year in Ceremony
Rites of Passage
The Countryside
Further Reading
Glossary

INTRODUCTION

Bulgaria’s rich artistic and cultural heritage stretches back to the seventh century and its first and greatest period of artistic achievement took place in the 9th century AD. However, the long periods of domination by both the Byzantine and the Ottoman Empires and the social upheavals of the twentieth century meant that subsequent development of Bulgaria’s indigenous art forms was intermittent, interrupted by periods of artistic stagnation and isolation from the mainstream artistic movements in central Europe. Bulgarians recognise five distinct periods in their cultural history.

The First Kingdom (681-1018) saw the invention of Cyrillic script and the translation, mainly from Greek, of religious literature and chant into the new language, a process that reached its apotheosis during the `Golden Age`, the reign of Tsar Simeon the Great (893-927).

The Second Kingdom, the Middle Bulgarian or `Silver` age of the Asen and Shishman dynasties (1186-1396) revived and refined the creation of Slavic religious texts and music and saw the introduction of a secular literary tradition.

The National Revival Period from the middle of the eighteenth century until the early twentieth was driven by the resurgence of Bulgarian nationalism as part of the struggle to overthrow Ottoman domination..

The Communist Years, the communist-inspired and now mostly discredited period of socialist realism which drew heavily on Russian art of the Stalinist period.

The Changes. Since 1989 a new generation of artists has begun to emerge with closer contact and access to Western art forms, and a wide range of European and American literature, has appeared in translation.

Classical and Religious Music.

The rich and resonant sound of Bulgarian orthodox chant that can be heard today in most Bulgarian churches is part of a long unbroken tradition that stretches back to the introduction of Christianity in 865. Old Bulgarian chant (staro balgarski napev) was at first influenced by Byzantine chant, but in the hands of Kliment of Ohrid (10th century), Ioan Kukuzel (14th century) and others it gradually took on a distinctive character as the stresses of Bulgarian replaced those of Byzantine Greek and also because of the influence of folk music. Until the 19th century, secular music-making was dominated by folk music, but after independence in 1878, professional music-making developed rapidly. The first music school in Sofia was opened in 1904 and the first opera company also in Sofia in 1908. The music of the first Bulgarian composers, in keeping with the need of the new nation to recreate a Bulgarian national identity, was initially inspired by folk music, one of the earliest being Emmanuel Manolov (1860-1902) who wrote the first Bulgarian opera, `Siromahkiya`. The dominant name of this period however is Dobri Hristov (1875-1941), a composer of highly individual style noted for his symphonic and choral works, particularly the liturgical settings, many of which are still sung today. After 1920 a new generation of composers emerged, mostly trained abroad and much more influenced by developments in mainstream European music, the foremost of these being the Paris-trained Pancho Vladigerov (1899-1972), who wrote 4 piano concertos, numerous symphonic works, of which the `Vardar Fantasy` has become almost a second national anthem, and the opera `Tsar Kaloyan`. From this period, Petko Stainov, mainly known for his `Thracian Dances` and a symphonic poem, `Thrace`, Liubomir Pipkov whose work is strongly influenced by folk music, and Georgi Dimitrov, known for his choral works, are also prominent.

After the war, although somewhat constrained by government diktat, a younger generation continued to compose in a distinctively Bulgarian style, in particular, Philip Koutev, director of the folk ensemble that bears his name but also composer of numerous orchestral works, Veselin Stoianov, composer of the opera `Bai Ganyu` and Alexander Raichev whose most popular work is the ballet `The Song of the Haiduks`. Internationally, Bulgarian performers have also made their mark, the bass singer, Boris Hristov is perhaps the most obvious example although other singers such as Hristina Morfova, Nikolai Gyaurov, Gena Dimitrova, Katya Popova, Liuba Velichkova, Raina Kabaivanska, Petar Raichev and Mihail Popov are also prominent. Among instrumentalists, the pianist Yuri Bukov and the young violinist, Mincho Minchev, deserve mention.

Rock, Pop Hip-Hop and …Chalga

Rock and pop became popular during the Communist years, often by recordings of rip-offs of European hits with Bulgarian words ( a rewrite of Sandy Shaw’s 1960’s hit, Puppet On A String became particularly popular). However some bands and singers wrote songs in their own right. Bulgarian disco and synth pop came with artists such as Vasil Naidenov and Mimi Ivanova. The biggest rock band of the 70’s and 80’s (and still performing) was FSB, who play heavy rock with screaming guitars. Todor Kolev, a film actor and comic, achieved musical fame with quirky, funny songs such his Cherno More (Black Sea) about a holiday. On the same subject, Ah Moreto, (Ah, the sea) by Toni Dimitrova became the anthem of everyone going on their summer holidays. After the changes a more political and socially conscious music arrived heralded by The Poduene Blues Band. Formed in 1989, they became a fixture of the anti-communist demonstrations of early 1990’s with songs such as Communism Is Going Away and the satirical Nyama Bira (there’s no beer). The punk band Wikeda reflected the hopelessness and high unemployment of the late 1990’s with Bobi, a song about an unemployed young man whose subtitle says it all, A nie s Bobi piem Kafe (And we and Bobi drink coffee). Upsurt were one of the first hip-hop bands whose songs, in particular Kolega (Colleague), took aim at corruption and the lack of opportunity. This politically conscious type of music continues to be an important strand of Bulgarian music to this day, particularly during the demonstrations of 2013-4. Hip-hop and dub-step remixes of Bulgarian folk songs and a similar genre called ethno-house have become popular (NiT GriT on You Tube is an example).
Finally, the singularly Bulgarian genre of pop music, chalga, sometimes known as turbo-pop, pop music with an oriental twist. The name comes from a Turkish word meaning a performer who could play virtually any type of music, adding his or her own distinctive beat or rhythm. It emerged in Yugoslavia during the Communist years and was banned in Bulgaria until 1989, since when it has become one of the most popular but derided music-forms in the country. Criticised for its sexual content and scantily-dressed performers it nevertheless remains the music you’re most likely to hear in a taxi. Female performers are the most popular, Aniela and Desi Slava being among the ones you hear most, and, an intriguing recent addition, the drag artist Azis.

Literature

The first flowerings of a purely Bulgarian literature appeared during the years of the first Slavic literary school (893-971), established by the pupils of Ss. Kyril and Metodius, the inventors of the Cyrillic alphabet, under the patronage of Tsars Simeon (d.927) and Petur (d.969). In an attempt to Slavicise the predominantly Byzantine form of Christianity adopted by Tsar Boris I in 865, the earliest, mostly religious literature of the period consisted of translations from the Greek. Simeon’s own `Zlatostruy`, (the Golden Stream) was the first Slavic rendering of St. John Chrysostom and Ioan Exarch’s `Hexaemeron` was a retelling of the six days of Creation. Later, original works, such as the poems of Bishop Constantine of Preslav and numerous, clandestine writings of the Bogomils, appeared. Not much remains of contemporary secular writing, but the vitality of what is extant, in particular the first Slavic short story, telling of a `miraculous encounter` between one of Simeon’s cavalrymen and the Magyars, indicates that there must have been a thriving body of such tales.

The 13th- 14th century Middle Bulgarian or `Silver` age of the Asen and Shishman dynasties continued the process of translation and commissioning of a Slavic Christian canon and the sophistication of schools set up by those such as Theodosius at Turnovo is demonstrated by the graphic virtuosity of the illuminations of its manuscripts, such as the Tsar Ivan Alexander Gospels in the British Museum and the Chronicles of Constantine Manasses in the Vatican. A popular tradition continued apace, with such works by disciples of Theodosius as Patriarch Evtimy`s `Life of St. John of Rila`, Bulgaria’s patron saint and founder of Rila monastery and Vladislav Gramatik’s ecclesiastical travelogue `The Conveyance of St. John’s Relics to Rila Monastery`.

Modern Bulgarian literature dates from the early nineteenth century and the revival of national consciousness, although the first stirrings of this were awakened earlier by a work by a monk, Father Paisi of Hilendar. His `Slavo-Bulgarian History` of 1762, distributed in hand-written copies, with its romantic evocation of Bulgaria`s great past and contrast with its dismal present, single-handedly inspired the rebirth of Bulgarian nationalism. The first fruits of this appeared with the creation early in the 19th century of a new literary language, novobulgarski, based on contemporary dialect rather than the more formal medieval Church Slavonic and the first book in this new language appeared in 1806, Bishop Sofrony`s `Nedelnik` (Sunday Book) followed later by Neofit Rilski`s Bulgarian Grammar. The conditions of rural and small-town life, the lack of freedom and the strength of Greek domination of the church, formed the bulk of the subject matter of the work of the first authors such as the poets Petko Slaveykov and Hristo Botev, the prose writers, Liuben Karavelov and Georgi Rakovski, and the playwrights Dobri Voinikov and Vasil Droоmev. They drew for inspiration on a resource much exploited then and since, the glories of the past and the rich vein of folklore.

The years immediately preceding liberation in 1878 up to the early years of the twentieth century were dominated by one figure, the grand master of Bulgarian literature, Ivan Vazov (1850-1921). His prodigious output of poems, plays, short stories and novels is mostly concerned with the struggle for liberation, and his work’s popularity lies in its portrayal through the eyes of the ordinary people. His seminal novel, `Pod igoto` (Under the Yoke - 1893) tells the story of the trials of two lovers in a mountain village during the unsuccessful April Uprising of 1876.

As Bulgarian society stabilised in the closing years of the nineteenth century, conditions much improved for artists, both in the freedom to write what they wished and wider contact with the outside world and this began to show in their choice of subject matter. The satirist Aleko Konstantinov (1863-87) caught the spirit of the new age with his creation, the archetypal Bulgarian opportunist, Bai Ganyu, whose tragi-comic adventures he subtitled `The Incredible Tales Of A Contemporary Bulgarian At Home and Abroad`. Other writers such as Anton Strashimirov and Todor Vlaikov turned their attention to corruption at home and the difficult lives of the rural poor. Elin Pelin (1878-1949) turned his hand to the same themes, in a lighter vein, in a series of witty short stories.

A more cosmopolitan and philosophical vein was also developing exemplified by the work of the poet and essayist Pencho Slaveikov (1866-1912) whose work was heavily influenced by Neitsche, in particular Epicheski Pesni (Epic Songs -1896). The experience of fighting in the trenches of the First World War also inspired many writers, in particular the poet Dimcho Debelyanov (1887-1916) and Iordan Iovkov (1880-1937) in his work `Zemliatsi` (1915). He also published two well-regarded collections of short stories, `Legends of the Stara Planina` (1927) about life in his home village of Zheravna and `Evenings at the Antimov Inn` (1928). The rise of Communism in Russia was reflected in Bulgarian literary life after the war by the rise to prominence of a number of left-leaning poets, the earliest being Hristo Smirnenski (1898-1923), regarded as the founder of socialist realism. The most notable of these was the tragically short-lived Geo Milev (1895-1925), an innovative writer whose major works, such as the epic `Septemvri` dealing with the Communist-inspired uprising of 1923, are still popular. Engineer turned poet, Nikola Vaptsarov (1909-1942) was also much respected, in particular for his collection `Songs of the Engine` (1940).

Between 1944 and 1989 the government encouraged Socialist Realism as the only acceptable style and the works produced in this period exhibit a uniformity of style and content. Two writers, however, achieved some international recognition during these years, Dimitur Talev for his works on 19th century Macedonia and Dimitur Dimov for his novel `Tobacco`, a story of corruption in the tobacco industry during the Second World War.

In the 1990’s, a new generation of writers came to prominence, many of them active as dissidents during the later years of the Zhivkov regime. Prominent among these were former vice-president, the poet Blaga Dimitrova (b.1922) and two younger Ecoglasnost activists, Vladimir Levchev (b.1957) and Edwin Sugarev (b.1953). In recent years, two strands of literature have emerged, that written by Bulgarians living abroad and a growing market for Bulgarian fiction in the country itself. In the latter capacity two names stand out, the US based Miroslav Penkov whose ‘East of the West: A Country In Stories’ is an examination of contemporary village life and the UK based Kapka Kassabova whose ‘Street without a name’ looks at growing up under Communism. Very little of recently published literature in Bulgarian has been translated unfortunately, but of those that have, the following have been among the most popular. Natural Novel by Georgi Gospodinov, one of the country’s most respected writers, is a story about an author creating a ‘natural novel’ from bits and pieces of his own life; Alek Popov’s Mission London, a satire on the Bulgarian Embassy in London, and Everything Happens as It Does by Albena Stambolova. Writers from the west have also written about Bulgaria, prominent among them the American writer Elizabeth Kostova (The Historian and The Shadow Land) who has set up a foundation to encourage and translate Bulgarian writers.

Art and Architecture

The early years of the first Kingdom were a time of turmoil and little remains from that period. What does remain, such as the bas-relief of the Madara horseman, is executed in an austere style, more representational than decorative. When Khan Boris and his people converted to Christianity in 865 they adopted the Byzantine form, originating in Constantinople after the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476. The Eastern church practised a contemplative form of worship, centring around the icon as the focus of worship. Icons could take the form of mosaics or painted murals but were usually small painted, wooden or metal panels of a religious figure depicted in a highly-stylized fashion which was considered to express the transcendental nature of the Orthodox faith. The cornerstone of Orthodox ritual, over the centuries, icons have been the goal of pilgrimages, the focus of religious processions, led armies into battle, graced the christenings of princes and the coronations of kings and been commissioned as final homage to the dead of commoner and noble alike. The earliest Bulgarian example, a 10th century mosaic icon of St. Theodore found near Preslav, was the product of a ceramic workshop set up by Tsar Simeon in Preslav.

The churches that Boris and his successors built were designed to a Byzantine model but local traditions, such as the square-stoned masonry of Proto-Bulgar origin that is the distinguishing feature of the old capitals of Pliska and Preslav, and Byzantine influence were intermingled in a conscious attempt to create a Slavic Christian tradition. Thus from the same period in the 9th and 10th centuries remains the three aisled basilica (a timber-roofed church with a nave flanked by colonnades ending in a semicircular apse) as in the Old Metropolitan church in Nesebur or the `Golden` Church of Preslav and in contrast the square, churches of the old capitals. Under Tsar Simeon church construction became regulated and most churches were built to a pattern that is still in use today, mixing aspects of the old Byzantine wooden-roofed basilica and the later stone-vaulted and domed church.

This form reached its peak in the construction of the monastery churches. The Turks destroyed much of medieval monastic building but what has been excavated such as the monastic foundations attached to the Royal Palace at Preslav is enough to indicate the size of such foundations and the richness of the interior decoration.

As Bulgarian power waned towards the end of the 10th century, a Greek archbishop replaced the Bulgarian patriarch and Greek was made the official liturgical language. Under the new order, buildings were repaired in middle-Byzantine style. Two types of building were favoured, the quincunx with five domes and the aisleless domed church of which the church at Boyana and the ossuary church at Bachkovo are two examples.

The Second Kingdom was a rather more fragile affair, lacking the massive self-confidence of Preslav and Pliska but not without its glories, among them the extensive medieval town of Turnovo, Rila monastery and some churches in Nesebur. Reflecting the insecurity of the times, many of the buildings remaining from this period are fortified including fortified churches such as the one at Assenova Krepost near Bachkovo and the remote monastery of Aladzha near Varna which was carved out of a cliff. The churches were on the whole smaller, many with the addition of a belfry above the narthex, although the First Kingdom tradition of decoration with glazed ceramic plaques continued. As Byzantine influence declined, a number of singularly Bulgarian schools developed. The most influential, the Turnovo School, produced polychrome facades with carved ceramic decoration in horizontal bands alternating with bands of ornamental brickwork as in the ruined St. John Aliturgetos Church in Nesebur. The style of the frescoes changed from linear to picturesque and, in churches such as the little church of Boyana near Sofia, were often taken from life in a naif but intensely vital form distinct from the stylized canon of Byzantine art.

The iron hand of the Turks from the 14th to 18th century all but extinguished any further development of a singularly Bulgarian style of art and architecture. The Turks, however, brought their own architectural styles and, in the early years at least, built in a functional style as an expression of their control. In most towns, Bulgarian churches were converted to mosques and a konak, to most Bulgarians the ultimate symbol of Turkish oppression, was built. As they became more certain of their possession, architectural styles, particularly evident in the construction of 16th and 17th century mosques, became more ornate. Much of Turkish construction was destroyed in the nineteenth century, however, remaining mosques such as the Banya Bashi Mosque in Sofia, the Bairakli Mosque in Samokov and the the little mosque in Kiustendil (awaiting restoration) are evidence of the richness of Ottoman ornamentation. Of the little else that remains of the Turkish occupation, perhaps the most characteristic is the abundance of public water fountains, cheshma, of which most towns have at least one, some of them, as in Samokov, quite ornate.

The first stirrings of a new Bulgarian nationalism arose in the late 18th century as a struggle for an independent Bulgarian Orthodox church, and between about 1780 and 1860 Bulgarians looked for concrete expression of this in the reconstruction of older churches and monasteries and the commissioning of new ones. This period became known as the National Revival Period and was characterised by a renewed vitality of building and decorative styles, based in part on the traditions of the Second Kingdom but, as contact with central Europe increased, with influences from other schools. The builders and architects of this period were, on the whole, self-taught, foremost among them, Nikolai Fichev from Dryanovo, better known as Kolyo Ficheto, who painstakingly designed all his buildings by building models of them with straw and paper. He was responsible for town-houses in Turnovo, the covered bridge in Lovech and numerous churches mostly in northern Bulgaria. A new school of ecclesiastical art also developed, epitomised by the work of Zahari Zograf, who painted many murals and icons in Rila, Bachkovo and Troyan Monasteries.

Wood was the preferred medium for most architects, building on the skills of Bulgaria`s wood-carvers (see Wood-carving in the Folk Arts section) and the hallmark of most National Revival buildings are the intricately carved church iconostases and ceilings in houses of towns such as Samokov, Koprivshtitsa and Nesebur and the jewel in the crown of National Revival reconstruction, Rila monastery. Fresco and icon painting also developed anew, building on the lifelike traditions of such Second Kingdom examples as those at Boyana Church and, as in Renaissance Europe, a tradition of landscape painting grew from the depiction of religious figures against a rural background. The struggles of the Turks to contain Bulgarian nationalism drove many Bulgarians, including many artists, abroad, particularly to Russia where two of the best known studied, Stanislav Dospevski and Nikolai Pavlovich. Their subjects were, perhaps inevitably, mostly concerned with the struggle for Bulgarian independence, including many scenes from Bulgarian history, but there are also some fine landscapes and portraits.

After independence in 1886, the new government started a programme of public building, most of which would not have seemed unfamiliar to a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Subranie building in Sofia and large parts of Varna and Ruse town centres date from this period. To celebrate independence and to commemorate the many Bulgarians and Russians who died during the struggle, the Russians built two of Bulgaria`s most superb modern churches between 1886 and 1924, the Alexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia and the Russian Basilica in Shipka.

Post-independence painting and sculpture, freed from the constraints of the independence struggle, developed in a rather more cosmopolitan style than previously, characterised by perhaps the best-known of Bulgaria’s post-independence artists, Vladimir Dimitrov Maistora, whose portrayals of rural life around his native Kiustendil are heavily influenced by the techniques of the French impressionists. The paintings of Zlatyu Boyadzhiev from Plovdiv and Nenko Balkanski from Kazanlak (d. 1976 and 1977) both of whom were active during the communist years reflect contemporary society. Finally, Bulgarians are very fond of the cartoonist Donyo Donev (d. 2007), whose work gently pokes fun at Bulgarian society. The Three Fools

The Communists changed the architectural face of Bulgaria more than any other movement since medieval times, vast swathes of suburban Sofia and most other major towns were levelled to build the blocks of flats that most urban Bulgarians now live in and city and town centres were rebuilt in concrete. The few quarters of these towns that escaped this treatment, with their narrow streets and ornate houses, a little dilapidated as they now are, have a charm that is conspicuously absent from the post 1946 areas.

Post-communist

FOLK ARTS

Folk Music

The open-throated sound and lop-sided rhythms of Bulgarian folk music have become almost as popular in the West through the music of such performers as the Trio Bulgarka, Slavka Kalcheva, and others as they are at home. It is still very much a living and developing tradition and younger performers are continually pushing the bounds of what is permissible by mixing traditional forms and rhythms with modern styles. As well, distinctive regional musical styles, folk costumes and dances still remain, most towns and villages have a folk music and dance ensemble and a number of competitive festivals are held throughout the year. The open throated sound, characteristic of many women singers, is actually produced by constricting the throat and in most districts songs in this fashion are sung solo with or without instrumental accompaniment, but singers in some regions, particularly the Shop region around Sofia, specialise in close harmony singing of a type that would be considered discordant in the west, but which, in the hands of these singers, has a stark and poignant beauty.

The other distinctive characteristic of Bulgarian folk music is its rhythm, the lop-sidedness of which sounds fiendishly difficult to western ears but entirely natural to Bulgarians who snap their fingers in accompaniment without difficulty. The basis of these rhythms is the combination of 2 beats and 3 beats, as in the common paidoushko horo (round dance) with 5 beats to the bar (2+3). Other common dances are the 7 beat rachenitsa (2+2+3), the 9 beat daichovo horo (2+2+2+3), the 11 beat gankino horo (2+2+3+2+2) and the 13 beat chubrichancho horo (2+2+2+2+2+3). The most commonly used traditional instruments are the kaval, a long, rim-blown flute, the gaida, a single drone bagpipe, the gadoulka, a three string fiddle played upright and the tupan, a double-headed drum,. Some modern instruments are used today, particularly the clarinet, on which some players display an amazing virtuosity. Bulgarian folk music is immensely varied and rich, more than 60,000 songs have been collected, and each of the ceremonial days and occasions listed in the next section has a whole canon of specific songs and dances applicable only to that event. In addition there are work-songs, love songs, songs for the dead, banquet songs, children’s` songs, historical songs and many others. Specific performers to listen for are the Koutev Ensemble, founded by one of the country’s foremost folk musicians, Philip Koutev, Ivo Papazov, a clarinetist of Turkish origin who has also experimented with jazz, the master of the gaida, Nikola Atanasov and the adventurous young kaval player, Georgi Zhelyaskov.

Art and Craft - Textiles

The art of hand weaving has long been a Bulgarian tradition, and one that today is still practiced throughout the country. The distinctively embroidered headscarves and handkerchiefs with their red and green designs that can be seen in Ethnographic museums throughout the country can also be bought from street sellers in the more popular tourist resorts and in the major towns as can intricate lace table cloths and shawls. There is a rich diversity of traditional costume, mostly worn now by folk dancers although occasionally still seen on ceremonial occasions, ranging from the Greek influenced costumes of southern Macedonia to the almost Turkish styles of the Thracian plain where many of the villagers still make and wear clothes of traditional design. As in culture, though, which survived the Turkish occupation in the mountain monasteries, the most purely Bulgarian costumes with their woollen jackets(elek), knee length slippers (tsurvoul) and woollen hats (kalpak) come from the mountain regions, particularly the Stara Planina and the Rodope. Thus the most distinctive type of cloth produced in Bulgaria, and the most prized, comes from the Rodope whose blankets, cushions and bags are decorated in bold orange and yellow patterns ranging in complexity from simple stripes and tartan-type patterns to elaborate geometric motifs. The other distinctively Bulgarian traditional textiles are its carpets, which are made all over the country. The most prized are the Chiprovsi carpets from Sofia and Samokov and, again from the Rodope, goathair carpets called koziak. Other distinct styles are the Kotel type also produced in Sliven, the Persian type from Pirdop and Ihtiman and the Kamchia type.

Art and Craft - Wood carving

Bulgaria is a land full of forests and, until the beginning of the twentieth century; the majority of buildings were constructed of wood. Decorative carving of wooden ceilings, walls and pillars in houses and churches, an ancient craft much practiced by king and commoner alike since medieval times, became an essential part of Bulgarian architecture. It reached its highest point of ornateness and intricacy of detail during the National Revival period and most of the finest surviving examples of the woodcarver’s art, particularly the fine ceilings of some houses such as those in Samokov and Nesebur and church and monastery iconostases such as that in Rila Monastery come from the nineteenth century. A number of schools of wood carving developed:-

The Triavna School was founded in 1804 and evolved a clear system of ornament within a symmetrical pattern. Their main subjects were plants, birds and animals characterised by patterns of acanthus leaves with three or five lobes arranged in intricate lace-like patterns.

The Miache School from Debur near Plovdiv included some artists who had trained at the Monastery on Mount Athos and who had lived in Italy. This influence is demonstrated by their mastery of the human figure, a characteristic missing from other schools, and their ability to demonstrate the relationships between figures in their carvings.

The Samokov School is perhaps the best known of all the schools; in particular through the work of the Zograf family and the master of all Bulgarian wood carvers, Zahari Zograf. The Samokov style is very ornate, decorated with animals, fantastic birds and plant patterns, particularly a characteristic six petalled narcissus.

Other groups of woodcarvers worked throughout the country, each with highly individual styles, of whom particular mention should be made of a group who worked in Kalofer, near Kazanlak, in the middle of the nineteenth century, some of whose members also worked in Romania. Their extremely detailed style, with life-like figures of birds, animals and human beings illustrated in iconostases such as that of the Sveta Nedelia church in Sofia and the Sv. Kiril and Metodius Church in Turnovo, begins to show influences from central Europe.

The art of the woodcarvers from all these schools and others working individually was not confined to religious buildings, many more homely articles were produced such as musical instruments, furniture and children’s` toys examples of which are displayed in museums throughout the country.

THE YEAR IN CEREMONY

1st January - New Year (Nova Godina) Tokens or sometimes twigs with different numbers of buds are baked into special pastries banitsa) . The token or twig that each person gets defines their fortune during the coming year

22nd January - Midwifes` Day (Babinden). A day of celebration of mid-wives, in which women only take part in recognition of the newly-found independence and pride childbirth gives.

14th February - St.Triphons Day (Zarezan) A vine-growers` celebration, the day of the first pruning of the vines. A `tsar` is elected from among the villagers to lead the festivities and ceremonially prune the first vine.

Late February - Shrovetide (Zagovezni). A festivity to mark the beginning of Lent, celebrated in some areas by `Kukeri`, young men wearing large decorative masks who play traditional games. The Kukeri are a symbol of freedom, behind the masks the young men can say what they like, and traditionally their leader censures any prominent citizen who has abused his power.

1st March - Baba Marta (Granny March) A celebration of the coming of Spring. Charms called `Martenitsa` intertwined threads of red and whitewool are exchanged and traditionally worn until the first sign of spring.

One week before Easter - Lazar`s Day (Lazarovden) Young maidens` day when young girls dress up in garlands of flowers and perform special dances and songs.

Easter (Velikden) - The greatest of the Orthodox religious festivals the high point of which is the Easter Saturday service when the Patriarch processes around the Alexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia. On Easter Sunday specially painted boiled eggs are eaten along with Kozounak, Easter bread.

6th May - St. George`s Day (Gergyovden - he of the dragon) celebrated by serving a whole roasted lamb.

27th May - Spassovden Traditionally known as the time when fairies and woodnymphs come out into the open. Also when the healing herb dittany can be found , and the sick and the lame spend this night in the fields. In some areas, the men perform the Rusalii dance, thought to have Thracian origins, around the sick to heal them.

3rd June - Sv. Konstantin and Elena’s Day. In the village of Nestinarki near Bourgas this is the day of fire dancing. The dance, the music for which is played on a sacred bagpipe and drum, is performed by a young girl who circles a fire holding an icon of the saints until she falls into a trance and dances barefoot on the embers.

24th June - St. John the Baptist`s Day (Enyovden) Celebrated with the custom of Enyo`s Bride. A 4 or 5 year old girl is dressed in a long whiteshirt and garlanded with flowers and carried around the village by four young women, blessing the fields, gardens and people as she passes.

Harvest-time - The harvest begins with a short ritual, performed usually by a young girl, who starts harvesting with a sickle while the rest of the farmers sing:-

`Reap, Ruzha, for a good crop,

Reap, Ruzha, for an easy summer,

Easy and light like a feather.`

A special kind of bread is baked as a symbol of abundance, and the first ears of wheat are knit together and preserved as good luck charms.

Christmas (Koleda) is celebrated by `koledari`, groups of young men who go around the houses singing carol after the Christmas Eve dinner to wish everyone good luck and health, with a specific song for each member of the family.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Progress through early life is marked by a number of ceremonies, some with their roots in village life, which most families, even those in cities, still observe. The earliest is `pogacha`, the blessing of a newborn baby. The family bake or buy two types of special bread, one savoury and one sweet, and female relatives and friends of the mother visit to wish the baby well. The mother ceremonially breaks the bread and, as she does so, sings a traditional song. When the baby learns to walk, the family organise a `proshtapulka`. Relatives and friends bring toys each representing a different profession which are laid out before the child. The one he first picks up is deemed to be his choice of profession in later life. In addition to birthdays, the family celebrate name days, imenden, the day of the saint which bears the name of the child. Should at any time the child fall ill or have a life-threatening accident, the family give thanks for his or her recovery with a special meal called `kurban` when a whole lamb is roasted. When the time comes to marry, perhaps the most elaborate of all rituals takes place. Weddings last for several days, the days before the ceremony being taken up with the preparation of the wedding meal, the wedding clothes and bouquets. On the night before the wedding there is a gathering at the bride’s house at which particularly sad songs are sung as the bride leaves the bosom of her family. On the day itself, the best man and the maid of honour go to the bride’s house to collect her and after the ceremony the men process ahead of the bride and bridegroom to the groom’s house where they are welcomed with honey to sweeten the relationship. At the house the husband’s parents perform a special horo and the bride passes around with gifts for all the guests, who in their turn reciprocate with their own gifts, usually gold coins. The wedding celebrations then start with a best man’s horo and continue until the couple leaves.

Life’s final ceremony, the funeral, is marked by putting up posters on the deceased`s house and in the streets around the house, usually with a picture and some details of his or her life. Sometimes an arrangement of black ribbon is also tied to the door or gate of the house. As well as a funeral mass, memorial masses are held after 40 days, 3 months, 6 months and a year.

THE COUNTRYSIDE

Bulgaria is rich in a wide diversity of habitats, the rolling plains of the Thracian valley watered by the Maritza river and the Dobrudzha plain on the banks of the Danube, the woodland of the Stara Planina mountain range and the less accessible and more Alpine Rodope and Pirin ranges in the south and the Black Sea coast, in places heavily affected by the pressures of tourism but still with areas where the original ecology has been preserved. Both the Black Sea and the Danube have in the past suffered heavily from pollution from industry and oil spillage, and continue to do so, although recently efforts have been made to restrict the pumping of untreated industrial effluent into both. The Black Sea is particularly susceptible to pollution, only a thin upper layer of water is oxygen bearing and because of the narrowness of its only outlet, the Bosphorus, very little water is recycled. Its ecology is subsequently fragile and many native species, in particular the once-common dolphin and Monk seal, are in decline.

The Bulgarian government has established a number of national parks and nature reserves in areas particularly susceptible to agriculture or tourism, all of which are open to the public. Public access to the countryside is unrestricted, although, as elsewhere, commonsense should be used when walking over farmland to avoid damaging crops or harming livestock. In remote areas where visitors are uncommon it is advisable to make your presence known to farmers or villagers before trekking over their land. In the mountains there are a series of well-marked long distance paths, broken by hizhas, chalets or bothies with facilities for staying the night. In the southern ranges particularly, storms can gather quickly in spring and autumn and it is always advisable to carry suitable weatherproof clothing.

Most of lowland Bulgaria is cultivated, producing fruit and grapes, maize and a wide range of vegetables, or given over to grazing sheep, goats and, to a lesser extent, cattle. Agriculture, on the whole, is still practised in less intensive ways and thus species of bird that have elsewhere in Europe been dislodged by commercial farming methods such as the corncrake, quail and various species of larks are still common. While some plant and animal species native to the rolling woodland that was the original cover for most of the lowland areas have declined, others, such as the Balkan wall lizard, grasshoppers and crickets, preyed on successfully by grey shrikes and bee-eaters have adapted to the man-made open spaces. In the many orchards, scop’s owl, the red-backed shrike and different species of warbler can be found and on many a chimney that archetypal European bird, the white stork, builds its untidy nest often with sparrows as uninvited tenants.

The Black Sea coast varies from north to south, the flora and fauna of the northern stretch above Varna being almost central European while becoming progressively more Mediterranean towards the south. In spring and autumn the seaboard plays host to large numbers of migrating sea birds and large flocks of marsh terns, swallows, martins and cranes can be seen on the lakes of Burgas.

Fifty kilometres south of Burgas lies the coast`s biggest nature reserve, the Ropotamo National Park. It lies around the mouth of the river Ropotamo protecting about 10 square kilometres of riverine woodland to the north of which is the little lake of Arkutino. On the coast there are dune systems with a wide range of coastal plants. The woodland is home to a wide range of bird species including some such as the penduline tit with their curious bottle-shaped woven nests hanging from branches and the white-tailed eagle, a magnificent bird of prey with a wing-span of up to 9 feet which can only be found on the reserve. The three lakes around Burgas, Atanasovsko, Mandra and Burgas have been much affected by human development although pelicans, ibises, egrets and spoonbills can still be seen on Lake Burgas and Atanasova, a saline lake from which salt is extracted commercially, is home to avocets and stilts. Inland from the coast are the Strandzha Mountains, a low-lying range which extends into northern Turkey whose woodlands (colourful in spring with a wide range of wildflowers) contain populations of pine and beech martens, wolves and the elusive wildcat. In the north, perhaps the most unspoiled stretch of coastline is that from Balchik to Cape Kaliakra, on whose chalk cliffs can be seen large numbers of seabirds. Around the cape itself, the cliffs are riddled with caves, home to Egyptian vultures and eagle owls and one of the last remaining Black Sea colonies of monk seal .Above, the grassy slopes are a mass of wild flowers in season, sage, paeony, broom and pinks.

The watermeadows and marshes along the length of the Danube have a different ecology altogether, bittern, herons and egret nest in the reedbeds close to the estuary while inland marsh harrier, shrike and corncrake breed in abundance. West of Silistra, a series of lakes, the biggest of which, Lake Sreburna, is a nature reserve, are particularly rich in wildlife. Sreburna itself has one of the few remaining breeding colonies of Dalmatian Pelican.

The massif which makes up the Rodope, Pirin and Rila mountain ranges in the south of Bulgaria is mostly alpine in nature although it becomes more Mediterranean in the area towards the Greek border. The lower northern slopes are covered in deciduous woodland which merges higher up with coniferous forest and close to the snowline alpine meadows colourful with a profusion of wildflowers in the summer. The more remote and inaccessible areas of the massif, particularly in the high woodland of the Rodope, are home to wolves, brown bear and wild boar. Red and roe deer are common throughout the range. Capercaillie and hazelhen, although difficult to spot, are also common in the higher coniferous forest throughout. The rivers which run off the massif, often through spectacular gorges, contain trout, and dipper and wagtail feed off the abundant insect life. Much of the higher reaches of the range escaped glaciation during the Ice Age and many pre-glacial species of plant, unique to Bulgaria, are common there along with more normal alpine varieties of saxifrage, gentian, bistort, coltsfoot and bellflower. There are three major national parks across the range, the Cherni Vruh National Park on the slopes of Vitosha a short bus ride from Sofia, the Pirin National Park close to Bansko, and the area around Mt. Mussala, the country`s highest peak, close to Borovets.

Duncan Brown

BACKGROUNDS 2 - THE ARTS